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How did the field of human-computer interaction get started?
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One good place to begin our story is in July of 1945, when Vannevar Bush wrote
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an article for the Atlantic Monthly, later reprinted in Life, called “As We May Think”.
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Today, technology has mostly augmented people’s physical abilities;
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Bush outlined a vision for information technologies that augmented people’s intellectual abilities.
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Who is this guy? What’s his deal? And what led to his pressing vision?
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Bush was vice-president and dean of engineering at MIT in the 1930’s,
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where, incidentally, he was Fred Terman’s advisor.
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Terman went on to become dean of engineering at Stanford
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and in the eyes of many the father of Silicon Valley.
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In 1939, Vannevar Bush moved to Washington.
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He’s a leading scientific policy maker
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He directs a lot of the government funding,
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and indeed creates and is instrumental in setting up large-scale university research.
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This administrative effort eventually leads to the creation of the National Science Foundation and ARPA,
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institutionalizing government-funded scientific research.
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The goal of this article, written in the final months of World War II, is to ask
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“What can government-funded scientists do to create a better world in peace time?”
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and his vision was a strongly human-centred one.
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Bush wrote of a future interactive desk; he calls the system “memex.”
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The idea is that all of the world’s information would be available on the knowledge worker’s desktop.
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Key to the memex idea was effective user interfaces for information storage and retrieval.
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Remember, this is 1945, so there aren’t yet practical digital computers —
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the first room-scale digital computers were just being built —
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and the idea was to use microfiche — high density film — to store everything!
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Even more impressive, Bush’s memex vision invents hypertext:
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he has this idea that people could author trails through this information store,
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save them for later use, and share them with others.
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But you’re not always at your desk, right? You want technology to come with you.
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And knowledge workers need to produce content as well as consume it.
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And the world isn’t just textual; it’s also visual.
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So Bush imagined that, in the future, you’d wear a camera,
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right in the centre of your head, like a third eye, and use it to capture stuff.
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And he worked out a design that made it as easy as possible to take pictures,
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so there’re no dials or settings to fiddle with.
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As with the memex desk, the details turned out differently; but the core vision was right on target.
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Today, for example, there are more than a billion camera phones that people carry with them.
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The programmable digital computers that soon follow, like the ENIACS on here,
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were a huge technological lead-forward.
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But, as you can see from the wires, the user interface left a lot to be desired.
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The idea of providing a more effective interface to computers has a long and storied history,
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beginning with Grace Hopper’s invention in the early 1950’s of the first compiler.
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What’s inspirational for me is that she conceptualized
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how improved tools could provide a much wider audience with access to computation.
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In the intervening years, good programming environments for the desktop and Web
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enabled legions of developers to create the content that helped put a PC on every desk.
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It’s a long path from Grace Hopper’s visionary work on the compiler to the graphical user interface.
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There are three key highlights I’d like to share with you along the way.
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The seeds of direct manipulation were sown at MIT at Lincoln Labs by Ivan Sutherland.
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The key innovation of the graphical user interface is that the user’s input
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is performed directly on top of the system’s output.
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This input-on-output directness makes the interface much easier to understand and much more intuitive.
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This input-on-output directness makes the system much easier to understand and feel more intuitive.
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In the case of Sutherland’s Sketchpad, the input was a light pen and the output was an oscilloscope.
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Here’s a short clip of the system in action:
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(You can see, we have several unusal pieces of input-output equipment here.
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We have a scope, and these are unusual at the time.
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And pushbuttons. Toggle switches.
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We have several other related devices.
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This made the TX-2 a fine candidate for the Sketchpad devlepments back in 1961.
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As I draw my art of say… on the scope, it reinforces what I have in mind.
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This is in general part of the design process.)
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The next major stop on our journey is the creation of the mouse and hypertext;
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these are key foundations for the Web.
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In 1945, Doug Engelbart was a navy radar technician.
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Engelbart spent his monotonous years in the Philippines.
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In the library, he found a copy of the magazine Life; It reprinted Bush’s Atlantic Monthly article.
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As John Markov writes, the idea of a device that could extend the power of the human mind
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left Engelbart awestruck.
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He had a vision. It took a long time, but eventually he got some funding and set to work.
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And what Doug Engelbart came up with, he showed to the world in his famous 1968 demo.
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(The research program that I’m going to describe to you is quickly characterizable by saying,
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if, in your office, you, as an intellectual worker, were supplied with a computer display,
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backed up by a computer that was alive for you all day,
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and was infinitely responsive to the reaction you have,
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how much value will you derive from that?
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And in a second you’ll see the screen and it’s working.
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And the way the tracking spot moves in conjunction with movements of that mouse.)
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Engelbart’s mouse worked with two orthogonal wheels.
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Each was a potentiometer, a variable resistor, like stereos commonly have for a volume knob.
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So you get about 300° of a turn and that’s it.
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Its usable parameter provided about 5 inches of motion in each direction.
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After the 1968 demo, Doug takes a show on the road.
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He travels the country with a 16-millimetre Bell & Howell projector.
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Ivan Sutherland had recently joined the faculty at the University of Utah.
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Doug comes to visit and shows the demo, and in the audience is Ivan’s PhD student Alan Kay.
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Alan has been dreaming of a personal computer.
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He sees Engelbart’s video and his eyes bugged out — they have the same dream.
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After his PhD, Alan moved to the Stanford AI Lab,
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where John McCarthy’s group has an early time-sharing system,
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maybe the place in the world where every person had their own terminal.
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From there, he moves to Xerox PARC, where he fleshes out his vision of a Dynabook.
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Here is a picture of the prototype that Alan made in the early 1970’s.
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This isn’t a functioning computer at all;
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it’s made out of carboard; it’s a prototype designed to communicate a vision.
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With this vision in hand, Alan Kay and his colleagues at Xerox PARC start building
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the foundation of the first real graphical user interface.
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It took them a decade to get it all together, to get it ready to ship.
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Xerox released the STAR computing system in 1981.
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The STAR featured a bitmapped display, a window-based graphical user interface, icons, folders,
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mice, ethernet network, file servers, print servers, and email.
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This next clip shows the fruit of their labour:
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(The display screen shows your working environment; we call this the desktop.
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Using the Move key, you can arrange your desktop in any way you like.
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Making a copy of one of these blank documents is like turning a sheet off a pad of paper.
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The [inaudible] of users to make their own form pads
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is one example of the usatibility [sic] built into the system.
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The screen closely approximates the appearance of a printed page.
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And I’m going to copy it into this upper document, and the new paragraph will appear here.
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This is a little window that lets me set the various parameters of the paragraph.)
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When the STAR shipped, this was almost four decades after Vannevar Bush’s vision,
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three decades after Grace Hopper’s compiler, two decades after Doug Engelbart’s first functioning system,
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and a decade after Alan Kay set off to work building this computer, inspired by the Dynabook ideas.
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This is an example of what Bill Buxton calls “the ‘Long Nose’ of Innovation”,
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that the early ideas behind a new technology paradigm
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are often seeded decades before the major commercial adoption.
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I’m sharing this history as we begin this course for a couple of reasons:
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First, seeing seminal work reminds me that good ideas are often klunkier early on.
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Second, as Johnny Lee and Bill Buxton point out, if you are looking for a good future product,
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the seeds you need may already be out there in rough form, waiting for you to polish it into a diamond.
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Third, I just think these early systems are totally awesome and it’s really inspiring.
